Week+1-Early+Theories+of+Cognitive+Development

Within that thread, compare and contrast Behaviorist, Cognitivist, and Sociocultural theories by answering the following questions for each perspective:
 * //Where does knowledge come from?//
 * //How does knowledge change?//
 * //What is the motivation to learn?//
 * //How is behavior regulated?//

Knowledge is seen as growing according to the laws of exercise and effect (Byrnes 2008) || The dynamics of knowledge can be assessed in the capacity of space, time, and location. With every moment, experience, observation, peripheral consciousness, and subconscious awareness are processed via: cognitive structures. As Piaget so eloquently coined knowledge dynamics, "//assimilation and accommodation"// are the keys to understanding the adaptive nature of the brain and how knowledge changes. Through experience and the structure: function capacities of sense awareness, habituation, sensitization, and development of mastery in within disciplines is accomplished (and accommodated for within previously assimilated knowledge).As Vygotsky points out, development of knowledge, is a precursor to knowledge acquisition. Put simply, proliferation and pruning as a result of experiential device during sensitive periods of development, that delineates developmental changes within structures whose circuitry is necessary for association of knowledge is a foundational piece of understanding knowledge dynamics. || Instruction should help children make the developmental bridge from spontaneous concepts to true/scientific ones. Over time and with help from adults, spontaneous concepts allow for the assimilation of scientific ones. This is similar to cognitivist ideas about assimilation and accommodation, but different in the role of adult influence. Children’s knowledge also changes in the zone of proximal development, in which skills are gradually acquired with appropriately modulated help of adults. The idea of scaffolding illustrates the important role teachers have in building knowledge (Brynes, 2007, p. 40-41). || Both Behaviorist and Sociocultural theorists suggest that knowledge changes have a direct correlation with pedagogical intervention strategies. The Cognitivist theory places more emphasis on the individual's neural circuitry and how it reacts to stimuli. || Byrnes, J. P. (2007). //Cognitive development and learning in instructional contexts// (3rd Edition)//.// Boston: Allyn & Bacon. **Found this on the internet- copied it for a framework to answer the questions- best, Victoria** from George Mason University Instructional Technology Program **Learning Strategies** || * **[|Behaviorism]**
 * || **Behaviorist** || **Cognitivist** || **Sociocultural** || **Similarities/Differences** ||
 * //Where does knowledge come from?// || Knowledge comes from neurally based associations between situations (stimulus) and responses. Behaviorists are empiricists – all knowledge is derived from experience, learning and environmental conditions. || Knowledge is a "constructive" progressive phenomenon that occurs as a result of proliferation of neural circuitry that is activated as a result of experiential enterprise. A statistical interpretation of these experiences is applied and a category is assigned, as an individual assimilates new knowledge into previous building blocks of categorical-statistical analyses of an individual's exposure and experience. In assessing where knowledge comes from, it is obvious that therein, lies the intrinsic quest for knowledge; intrinsic motivation., || Understanding //concepts,// such as categories, and //functions// takes time to develop. Integration of five main cognitive functions of language, thinking, perception, attention, and memory is needed for problem solving. Language skills are particularly important the then the stimulus-response relationship. The use of language and other symbols develops from social interactions. Functions repeat themselves first socially, then individually byway of internalization (Brynes, 2007, p. 39-40). || For all the theories, knowledge is incremental and as time goes on, knowledge grows. The fundamental difference is that for the Behaviorist and Sociocultural theories, knowledge can be shaped by stimuli and social interactions respectively. The Cognitivist theory on the other hand, purports that knowledge is essentially a unique neurochemical reaction to stimuli that varies from person to person regardless of whether the stimuli remains constant. ||
 * //How does knowledge change// || Knowledge (or change in learning) is associative, continuous and linear- the effect of which emphasizes repetition, rewards and punishment. Students wait for the stimulus (Antecedent- specific environmental stimuli) from the teacher and they respond (correctly or incorrectly) (Behavior) and they get a grade (Consequence and Reinforcements). The emphasis is on observable and measurable behaviors.
 * //What is the motivation to learn?// || For behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of new behavior through conditioning and stimulus regulation. The motivation to learn in achieved through consequences: rewards and punishment and reinforcement of behaviors to get responses that are closer and closer to the correct response or the desired behavior. || Motivation to learn is intrinsic and innate according to Piaget and Vygotsky. Habituation of associations that are made between experience and observation, as well as classical conditioning to attend to that which has provided subjective rewards are underlying factors that enhance self-directed success. The organismic view of biological and evolutionary adaptive nature of the individual to seek out details within their environment via: "curiosity, wondering, and the necessity to reach balance or "equilibrium" within one's intrinsic and extrinsic realities- is the spectrum of colours of the cognitive lens of what motivates one to acquire knowledge, proficiency, and mastery. || Children are motivated to learn by social influences. Adults help this process along through modeling, supporting, and prompting. Children internalize such external influences and use them to motivate themselves. || Behaviorism focuses more on extrinsic motivation-rewards and punishments. Socio-culturalists; on extrinsic influences transitioning to intrinsic via the medium of scaffolding. The Cognitivists however place the locus of motivation squarely in the intrinsic domain. ||
 * //How is behavior regulated?// || Behavior is regulated with reinforcement for the correct response. Teachers who use behavioral modification systems attempt to use the most natural reinforcers possible in the situation--the ones that would occur in the "real world" i.e. descriptive praise, smiles, social interactions, earning points, tokens, and even M and M’s. || Behavior is regulated with the need to maintain a balanced state of equilibrium. It is regulated with repetition, reinforcement, and the perpetual engagement of “assimilation and accommodation, an individual's cognition will intrinsically connect with their physiology and behavior.Neurobiology, physiology and behavior are the prime movers of regulation of the conduct in which one engages. Habituation of the behavior of studying for a midterm may occur as a result of rewards of desirable grades. Habituation of the knowledge necessary to accomplish the desired grade might be exemplified with the use of flashcards to build neural pathways that aid in the storage of knowledge. The behavior of using flashcards to study as a result of better grades is regulated through repetition and reinforcement. The behavior of withdrawal from danger or sensitization, can be exemplified by the simple motion of a negative experience; which occurs much faster (since it is often processed through the "low road" of cognitive functions). Stepping outside the arena of the classroom, but staying within the arena of learning, the behavior of sensitization can be exemplified with the classic case of the slug whose pain receptors are used to induce a withdrawal re: to stimuli. In short, behavior as it pertains to habituation, sensitization, or performance is a result of knowledge acquisition, fabrication, balance, and stimuli and cognitive accommodation or interpretation in maintaining equilibrium. || Speech plays an important role in self-regulation, and categorized as communicative speech, egocentric speech, and inner speech. Internalized talk to oneself helps regulate attention and manage challenging tasks. Younger children tend to be more other-regulated (e.g. by adults), and older children tend to be more self-regulated (Brynes, 2007, p. 41-43). || Behavorists and Socio-culturalists place emphasis on external behavior regulators. The latter advocates that as the individual matures, the need for external behavior regulators diminishes. Cognitivists feel that behavior regulation is essentially a phsiological/neurobiological process as the learner reacts to external stimuli. ||
 * || **Behaviorism** || **Cognitivism** || **Constructivism** ||
 * **Representations of the Learning Process** || **Stimulus-Response ** **[|Reinforced Behavior] **
 * Antecendent Behavior Consequence **
 * Sequenced knowledge and skills presented in logical limited steps ** || **[|Cognitivist Learning Perspective] ** **[|Information Processing] **
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">[|Schema] **
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Mental Models ** || **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Inquiry-based ****<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Discovery learning ** ||
 * <span style="color: #336633; font-family: Georgia,'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">**Relevant Frameworks** || **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Programmed Instruction (logical presentation of content, overt responses, immediate knowledge of correctness) ** || **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Events of Instruction (Conditions of Learning) ** || **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">[|Cognitive Apprenticeship] ** **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Cognitive Flexibility **
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Situated Learning **
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Zone of Proximal Development ** ||
 * <span style="color: #336633; font-family: Georgia,'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">**Key Principles** || **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Learning happens when a correct response is demonstrated following the presentation of a specific environmental stimulus ** **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Emphasis is on observable and measurable behaviors ** || **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Learning is a change of knowledge state ** **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Knowledge acquisition is described as a mental activity that entails internal coding and structuring by the learner. **
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Learner is viewed as an active participant in the learning process **
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Emphasis is on the building blocks of knowledge (e.g. identifing prerequisite relationships of content) **
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Emphasis on structuring, organizign and sequencing information to facilitate optimal processing ** || **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Learners build personal interpretation of the world based on experiences and interactions ** **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Knowledge is embedded in the context in which it is used (authentic tasks in meaningful realistics settings) **
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Create novel and situation-specific understandings by "assembling" knowledge from diverse sources appropriate to the problem at hand (flexible use of knowledge) ** ||
 * <span style="color: #336633; font-family: Georgia,'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">**Goal of Instruction** || **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Communicate or transfer behaviors representing knowledge and skills to the learner (does not consider mental processing) ** **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Instruction is to elicit the desired response from the learner who is presented with a target stimulus **
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Learner must know how to execute the proper response as well as the conditions under which the response is made **
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Instruction utilizes consequences and reinforcement of learned behaviors ** || **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Communicate or transfer knowledge in the most efficient, effective manner (mind-independent, can be mapped onto learners) ** **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Focus of instruction is to create learning or change by encouraging the learner to use appropriate learning strategies **
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Learning results when information is stored in memory in an organized, meaningful way. **
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Teachers/designers are responsible for assisting learners in organizing information in an optimal way so that it can be readily assimilated ** || **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Build personal interpretations of the world based on individual experiences and interactions (constantly open to change, cannot achieve a predetermined, "correct" meaning, knowledge emerges in relevant contexts) ** **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Learning is an active process of constructing rather than acquiring knowledge **
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Instruction is a process of supporting knowledge construction rather than communicating knowledge **
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Do not structure learning for the task, but engage learner in the actual use of the tools in real world situations ** ||
 * <span style="color: #336633; font-family: Georgia,'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">**Instructional/**
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Instructional cues to elicit correct response **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Practice paired with target stimuli **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Reinforcement for correct responses **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Building fluency (get responses closer and closer to correct response) **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Multiple opportunities/trials (Drill and practice) **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Discrimmination (recalling facts) **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Generalization (defining and illustrating concepts) **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Associations (applying explanations) **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Chaining (automatically performing a specified procedure) ** || * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">[|Information Processing Model] **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Explanations **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Demonstrations **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Illustrative examples **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">[|Gestalt Theory] **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Matched non-examples **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Corrective feedback **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Outlining **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Mneumonics **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">[|Dual-Coding Theory] **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Chunking Information **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Repetition **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">[|Concept Mapping] **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">[|Advanced Organizers] **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Analogies **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Summaries **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">[|Keller's ARCS Model of Motivation] **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Interactivity **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Synthesis **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">[|Schema Theory] **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Metaphor **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">[|Generative Learning] **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Organziational strategies **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">[|Elaboration Theory] **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Links to prior knowledge ** || * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Modeling **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">[|Collaborative Learning] **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Coaching **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Scaffolding **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Fading **
 * **[|Problem-Based Learning]**
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">[|Authentic Learning] **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">REALs **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">[|Anchored Instruction] **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Cognitive Flexibility Hypertexts **
 * **[|Object-based Learning]** ||
 * <span style="color: #336633; font-family: Georgia,'Times New Roman',Times,serif;">**Theorists** || * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Skinner **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Bandura **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Thorndike **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Pavlov ** || * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">[|Gagne] **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Bruner **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Anderson **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">[|Gardner] **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Novak **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">[|Rummelhart] **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">[|Norman] ** || * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">[|Vygotsky] **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Lave & Wenger **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">[|Piaget] **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Bransford, Hasselbring,etc. (CTGV) **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Grabinger **
 * **<span style="font-family: Georgia,Times New Roman,Times,serif;">Spiro and colleagues ** ||